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<text>This image of the northern hemisphere of Saturn was taken by NASA's Voyager 1 on Nov. 5, 1980, at a range of 9 million kilometers (5.5 million miles). It shows a variety of features in Saturn's clouds: Small-scale convective cloud features are visible in the dark belt (center); an isolated convective cloud with a dark ring is seen in the lighter zone; and a longitudinal wave is visible in the brighter zone (right of center belt). The smallest features visible in this photograph are 175 kilometers (110 miles) across.</text>
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<text>This false-color image of Saturn's southern hemisphere was taken by NASA's Voyager 1 on Nov. 6, 7980. It shows the unique red oval cloud feature located at 55 degrees south latitude. The photograph was taken at a distance of 8.5 million kilometers (5.3 million miles) from Saturn. The difference in color between the red oval and surrounding bluish clouds indicates that material within the oval contains a substance that absorbs more blue and violet light than the bluish clouds. Voyager imaging-team scientists first observed the oval in August1980, and the feature has seemed to retain its appearance since its discovery.</text>
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card_9024.xml
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<text>This image of Saturn, taken by NASA's Voyager 1 spacecraft on Oct. 18, 1980, was color-enhanced to increase the visibility of large, bright features in Saturn's North Temperate Belt. It is believed that these spots might closely resemble gigantic convective storms (similar to, but much larger than thunderstorms in Earth's atmosphere) with up welling from deep within Saturn's atmosphere. The nature of the dark spots like the one visible on the northern edge of the belt is not yet clearly understood, though they seem to resemble equally mysteries features seen on Jupiter. The largest violet-colored cloud belt (its true color is brownish) is Saturn's North Equatorial Belt. The distinct color difference between this and other belts and zones may be due to a thicker haze layer covering the northern portion of the belt. The Southern Hemisphere of the planet (below the rings) appears bluer than the Northern Hemisphere because of increased scattering of sunlight upon that area due to the spacecraft's point of view. Numerous gaps and divisions in the rings are becoming more apparent as Voyager 1 approaches Saturn. The newly discovered dark radial features in the rings are faintly shown on the lower right portion of the rings. Three separate images taken through ultraviolet, green and violet filters were used to construct this composite. The lower edge of the rings were "clipped" due to a slight drift of the spacecraft. Color spots in the rings are an artifact of image processing.</text>
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<text>This montage of images of the Saturnian system was prepared from an assemblage of images taken by the Voyager 1 spacecraft during Its Saturn encounter in November 1980. This artist's view shows Dione in the forefront, Saturn rising behind, Tethys and Mimas fading in the distance to the right, Enceladus and Rhea off Saturn's rings to the 1eft, and Titan in its distant orbit at the top. </text>
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<text> Saturn and Titan will be the destination for the Cassini mission, a project under joint development by NASA, the European Space Agency and the Italian Space Agency. The U.S. portion of the mission is managed for NASA by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory. After arriving at the ringed planet, the Cassini orbiter will release a probe, called Huygens, which will descend to the surface of Titan. The Cassini orbiter will then continue on a mission of at least four years in orbit around Saturn. Launched in October 1997 on a Titan IV-Centaur rocket from Cape Canaveral, Florida, Cassini will first execute two gravity-assist flybys of Venus, then one each of the Earth and Jupiter to send it on to arrive at Saturn in June 2004. Upon reaching Saturn, Cassini will swing close to the planet -- to an altitude only one-sixth the diameter of Saturn itself -- to begin the first of some five dozen orbits during the rest of its four-year mission. In late 2004, Cassini will release the European-built Huygens probe for its descent of up to two and a half hours through Titan's dense atmosphere. The instrument-laden probe will beam its findings to the Cassini orbiter to be stored and finally relayed to Earth. During the course of the Cassini orbiter's mission, it will execute some three dozen close flybys of particular bodies of interest -- including more than 30 encounters of Titan and at least four of selected icy satellites of greatest interest. In addition, the orbiter will make at least two dozen more distant flybys of the Saturnian moons. Cassini's orbits will also allow it to study Saturn's polar regions in addition to the planet's equatorial zone.</text>
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card_6557.xml
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<text> Saturn and Titan will be the destination for the Cassini mission, a project under joint development by NASA, the European Space Agency and the Italian Space Agency. The U.S. portion of the mission is managed for NASA by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory. After arriving at the ringed planet, the Cassini orbiter will release a probe, called Huygens, which will descend to the surface of Titan. The Cassini orbiter will then continue on a mission of at least four years in orbit around Saturn. Launched in October 1997 on a Titan IV-Centaur rocket from Cape Canaveral, Florida, Cassini will first execute two gravity-assist flybys of Venus, then one each of the Earth and Jupiter to send it on to arrive at Saturn in June 2004. Upon reaching Saturn, Cassini will swing close to the planet -- to an altitude only one-sixth the diameter of Saturn itself -- to begin the first of some five dozen orbits during the rest of its four-year mission. In late 2004, Cassini will release the European-built Huygens probe for its descent of up to two and a half hours through Titan's dense atmosphere. The instrument-laden probe will beam its findings to the Cassini orbiter to be stored and finally relayed to Earth. During the course of the Cassini orbiter's mission, it will execute some three dozen close flybys of particular bodies of interest -- including more than 30 encounters of Titan and at least four of selected icy satellites of greatest interest. In addition, the orbiter will make at least two dozen more distant flybys of the Saturnian moons. Cassini's orbits will also allow it to study Saturn's polar regions in addition to the planet's equatorial zone.</text>
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<text>The Voyager 1 and 2 Saturn flybys occurred nine months apart, with the closest approaches falling on November 12 and August 25, 1981. Voyager 1 flew within 64,200 kilometers (40,000 miles) of the cloud tops, while Voyager 2 came within 41,000 kilometers (26,000 miles).Saturn is the second largest planet in the solar system. It takes 29.5 Earth years to complete one orbit of the Sun, and its day was clocked at 10 hours, 39 minutes. Saturn is known to have at least 17 moons and a complex ring system. Like Jupiter, Saturn is mostly hydrogen and helium. Its hazy yellow hue was found to be marked by broad atmospheric banding similar to but much fainter than that found on Jupiter. Close scrutiny by Voyager's imaging systems revealed long-lived ovals and other atmospheric features generally smaller than those on Jupiter.Perhaps the greatest surprises and the most puzzles were found by the Voyagers in Saturn's rings. It is thought that the rings formed from larger moons that were shattered by impacts of comets and meteoroids. The resulting dust and boulder- to house-size particles have accumulated in a broad plane around the planet varying in density. The irregular shapes of Saturn's eight smallest moons indicates that they too are fragments of larger bodies. Unexpected structure such as kinks and spokes were found in addition to thin rings and broad, diffuse rings not observed from Earth. Much of the elaborate structure of some of the rings is due to the gravitational effects of nearby satellites. This phenomenon is most obviously demonstrated by the relationship between the F-ring and two small moons that "shepherd" the ring material. The variation in the separation of the moons from the ring may the ring's kinked appearance.</text>
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<text> The Voyager 1 and 2 Saturn flybys occurred nine months apart, with the closest approaches falling on November 12 and August 25, 1981. Voyager 1 flew within 64,200 kilometers (40,000 miles) of the cloud tops, while Voyager 2 came within 41,000 kilometers (26,000 miles). Saturn is the second largest planet in the solar system. It takes 29.5 Earth years to complete one orbit of the Sun, and its day was clocked at 10 hours, 39 minutes. Saturn is known to have at least 17 moons and a complex ring system. Like Jupiter, Saturn is mostly hydrogen and helium. Its hazy yellow hue was found to be marked by broad atmospheric banding similar to but much fainter than that found on Jupiter. Close scrutiny by Voyager's imaging systems revealed long-lived ovals and other atmospheric features generally smaller than those on Jupiter. Perhaps the greatest surprises and the most puzzles were found by the Voyagers in Saturn's rings. It is thought that the rings formed from larger moons that were shattered by impacts of comets and meteoroids. The resulting dust and boulder- to house-size particles have accumulated in a broad plane around the planet varying in density. The irregular shapes of Saturn's eight smallest moons indicates that they too are fragments of larger bodies. Unexpected structure such as kinks and spokes were found in addition to thin rings and broad, diffuse rings not observed from Earth. Much of the elaborate structure of some of the rings is due to the gravitational effects of nearby satellites. This phenomenon is most obviously demonstrated by the relationship between the F-ring and two small moons that "shepherd" the ring material. The variation in the separation of the moons from the ring may the ring's kinked appearance.</text>
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<text> The Voyager 1 and 2 Saturn flybys occurred nine months apart, with the closest approaches falling on November 12 and August 25, 1981. Voyager 1 flew within 64,200 kilometers (40,000 miles) of the cloud tops, while Voyager 2 came within 41,000 kilometers (26,000 miles). Saturn is the second largest planet in the solar system. It takes 29.5 Earth years to complete one orbit of the Sun, and its day was clocked at 10 hours, 39 minutes. Saturn is known to have at least 17 moons and a complex ring system. Like Jupiter, Saturn is mostly hydrogen and helium. Its hazy yellow hue was found to be marked by broad atmospheric banding similar to but much fainter than that found on Jupiter. Close scrutiny by Voyager's imaging systems revealed long-lived ovals and other atmospheric features generally smaller than those on Jupiter. Perhaps the greatest surprises and the most puzzles were found by the Voyagers in Saturn's rings. It is thought that the rings formed from larger moons that were shattered by impacts of comets and meteoroids. The resulting dust and boulder- to house-size particles have accumulated in a broad plane around theplanet varying in density. The irregular shapes of Saturn's eight smallest moons indicates that they too are fragments of larger bodies. Unexpected structure such as kinks and spokes were found in addition to thin rings and broad, diffuse rings not observed from Earth. Much of the elaborate structure of some of the rings is due to the gravitational effects of nearby satellites. This phenomenon is most obviously demonstrated by the relationship between the F-ring and two small moons that "shepherd" the ring material. The variation in the separation of the moons from the ring may the ring's kinked appearance.</text>
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<text>Pioneer 11: Launched April 5, 1973. Pioneer 11 went first to Jupiter, and then continued on to become the first probe to reach Saturn. Pioneer 11 discovered one of Saturn's moons, Janus, and two previously unknown rings. It also measured Saturn's magnetic field, which was found to be 1000 times stronger than that of Earth. </text>
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<text>Saturn, named for Jupiter's father, the first ruler of Olympus, is the most remote planet known to ancient people. The first recorded observations were made in Mesopotamia in the mid-7th century BC when Saturn occulted the Moon. Galileo Galilei is credited with the first observations of the disk itself in 1610. Then in 1659 the rings were accurately described for the first time by Christiaan Huygens. G. D. Cassini, director of the Paris Observatory, first noted the gap in the rings in 1675, now known as Cassini's Division. The cause for the division was first explained by the "zones of avoidance" theory (the same as theory used to describe the reason for gaps between minor planets and asteroids between the Sun and Mars and Jupiter), developed in 1866 by Daniel Kirkwood.In modern times, Saturn has been visited by Pioneer and Voyager probes: Pioneer 11 visited in September 1979. Voyager 1 in November 1980; and Voyager 2 in August 1981. Exploration of the planet will continue with the Cassini mission, a combined effort by NASA and the European Space Agency scheduled for launch the latter part of the 1990s.</text>
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<text>Saturn's eighteen moons orbit the planet over a great range of distances. The nearest, Pan, is 133,600 km from Saturn; the outermost, Phoebe, is nearly 100 times farther out. Pan is the most recently discovered satellite of Saturn; very little is known about this tiny body.The diagram of the inner orbits shows a broad ring around the planet where the orbits of the innermost six satellites are too close together to distinguish at this scale. Moving outward, we encounter the orbits of five moons that are seen from Earth: Mimas, Enceladus, Tethys, Dione, and Rhea (about 527,000 km from Saturn). In addition, spacecraft have discovered two small moons that follow the same path as Tethys--one orbits ahead of Tethys, the other behind--and one that shares the orbit of Dione. Further out are the orbits of Titan and Hyperion.The graphic of the outer orbits shows the paths of Titan and Hyperion as a ring close to the planet, surrounded by the orbit of Iapetus, which lies over 3,560,000 km from Saturn. The most distant moon, Phoebe, has a more eccentric orbit and is nearly 13 million km from the planet.</text>
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<text>Saturn is surrounded by a series of seven named major rings, named "A" through "G", which have variable compositions. One speculation is that the rings were formed when a large object encountered Saturn early on in the solar system's evolution and broke into tiny fragments that spread around the planet. Alternatively, it is possible that a single, large satellite orbiting Saturn was destroyed by a collision with another object such as an asteroid. In addition, there is growing support for the theory that the rings represent debris associated with Saturn as the planet evolved from the original solar nebula, and that the debris was never part of another body. The main rings, A, B, and C, probably contain water ice in pieces ranging from tiny grains to blocks several tens of meters in diameter. Together the main rings span a width of about 275,000 km. Rings A and B are divided by the Cassini Division, a gap nearly 4,000 km wide. Ring C, known as the Crepe or Dusky Ring, is semi-transparent. Some of the known rings were not discovered by land-based observers. Pioneer 11 first detected Ring F and the Voyager probes added G and E, which are both very tenuous. The Voyagers also provided proof that there are literally thousands of rings within the minor divisions in major rings. In addition, Voyager found radial, spoke-like features in the broad B-ring. The features are believed to be composed of fine, dust-size particles. The spokes were observed to form and dissipate in time-lapse images taken by the Voyagers. While electrostatic charging may create spokes by levitating dust particles above the ring, the exact cause of the formation of the spokes is not well understood.In almost every case where clear gaps do appear in the rings, eccentric ringlets are found. All show variations in brightness. Some differences are due to clumping or kinking, and others to nearly complete absence of material. Some scientists believe the only plausible explanation for the clear regions and kinky ringlets is the presence of nearby undetected satellites.</text>
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<text>NASA's Voyager l took this photograph of Saturn on Oct. 18, 1980, 34 million kilometers (21.l million miles) from the planet. The photograph was taken on the last day that Saturn and its rings could be captured within a single narrow-angle camera frame as the spacecraft closed in on the planet for its nearest approach on Nov. 12. Dione, one of Saturn's inner satellites, appears as three color spots just below the planet's south pole. An abundance of previously unseen detail is apparent in the rings. For example, a gap in the dark, innermost ring, called the C-ring or crepe ring, is clearly shown. Material is seen within the relatively wide Cassini Division, separating the middle, B-ring from the outermost ring, the A-ring. The Encke Division is shown near the outer edge of the A-ring. The detail in the rings' shadows cast on the planet is of particular interest: The broad, dark band near the equator is the shadow of the B-ring; the thinner, brighter line just to the south is the shadow of the less dense A-ring. </text>
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<text>These Voyager images of SaturnΓÇÖs clouds are in false color in order to enhance the contrast between the different bands which are in reality quite similar in color. The cloud features are less colorful than JupiterΓÇÖs because the cloud layers of lie deeper in the atmosphere. This is the result of colder temperatures at Saturn: in order for ammonia, for example, to form clouds it must be at a certain temperature and this temperature is found at a lower altitude on Saturn than on Jupiter.A wide range of cloud systems exist in Saturn' atmosphere. Several persistent symmetric white, brown, and red ovals have been observed at various latitudes and are believed to be a product of mixing methane, ammonia, and sulfur. Atmospheric bands colored yellow, brown, and black are the result of molecules, which were destroyed by ultraviolet sunlight and violent lightening, being mixed together by Saturn's dynamic weather patterns. The red band is probably produced by phosphine. Two main atmospheric belts, the North (latitude +20 degrees) and South (latitude -20 degrees) Equatorial Belts, are always visible, and aurora are common between 78 and 80 degrees latitude in both hemispheres. The major cloud features in Saturn's northern hemisphere are the Brown spot (1,500 km in diameter) and Big Bertha (the largest spot, measuring 10,000 by 6,000 km). Saturn's southern hemisphere features Anne's Spot (5,000 by 3,000 km).</text>
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<text>SaturnPlanet statisticsDistance from the Sun: Maximum: 934.3 million miles 1,507 million km 10.069 AU Minimum: 835.1 million miles 1,347 million km 9.009 AU Mean: 884.7 million miles 1,427 million km 9.539 AUPeriod of revolution: 29.46 yearsPeriod of rotation (equatorial): 10 hr. 14 min.Mean orbital velocity: 6 miles (9.6 km) per secondInclination of axis: 26.73 degreesOrbital eccentricity: 0.056Orbital inclination: 2.49 degreesDiameter at equator: 74,990 miles (120,660 km) 9.41 x EarthΓÇÖs diameterOblateness: 0.102Mass: 5.69 x 10^26 kg 95.1 x EarthΓÇÖs massVolume: 8.15 x 10^14 km^3 752 x EarthΓÇÖs volumeDensity: 0.69 g/cm^3 0.127 x EarthΓÇÖs densitySurface gravity: 11.3 m/s^2 1.16 x EarthΓÇÖs gravityEscape velocity: 22.1 miles (35.6 km) per secondMean surface temperature: -292 F / -180 C / 93 K (at cloud tops)Maximum apparent diameter as seen from Earth: 20.9"Albedo: 0.46Number of known satelites: 18Mean diameter of Sun as seen from Saturn: 3' 22"</text>
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<script>on openCardlock screencolorizeHC "Add","PLANETS:SATURN:UI_MAC:SATURN.PIC"unlock screennoPaintWhitepalette "satMMenu", "0,417"end openCardon closeCardlock screencolorizeHC "colorFill" -- redraw previous screensunlock screenif there is a window "SATURN211KHz Movie" then ¬close window "SATURN211KHz Movie"noPaintWhiteif there is a window "satMMenu" then ¬close window "satMMenu"end closeCard</script>
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